Cloud Computing Grid Computing High Performance Information Technology Essay Example

Cloud Computing Grid Computing High Performance Information Technology Essay Example Cloud Computing Grid Computing High Performance Information Technology Essay Cloud Computing Grid Computing High Performance Information Technology Essay The term Cloud Computing was foremost used in 2007. It is fundamentally the development of current systems which implement grid computer science and parallel computer science. Some factors that drive cloud calculating to develop are the high quality of informations storage and transit and the visual aspect of Web 2.0. As a construction cloud computer science is based on TCP-IP which can be realized through the Internet. The coaction of engineering giants such as Google, IBM, Microsoft, Apple, Oracle, Amazon and HP, popularise this new germinating engineering. While the execution of cloud calculating might look something which will go on in the close hereafter, this rule is already being used presents. A signifier of cloud computer science is the use of web-based electronic mail services such as Gmail and Hotmail. In this instance, the package and storage for every history is non located on the user s computing machine but on the service s computing machine cloud. Other cloud calculating undertakings are the CRM by Salesforce, Google App Engine and Amazon s Elastic Compute Cloud. The features of cloud calculating are chiefly the loose-coupling, strong mistake tolerance, easiness of usage and the service oriented theoretical account. The services of cloud calculating are chiefly divided into three classs: Infrastructure-as-a-Service ( IaaS ) , Platform-as-a-Service ( PaaS ) , Software-as-a-Service ( SaaS ) . The cloud calculating theoretical account is besides a concern theoretical account, since the user requires comparatively inexpensive terminuss to entree an infinite sum of informations and with supercomputing power. Some people find it hard to separate cloud calculating from grid calculating. While an application of grid computer science is public-service corporation computer science, cloud computer science is dedicated to supply services to its clients. Furthermore, cloud computer science is more user-friendly than the grid, which is more addressed to proficient people involved in its care. Section V identifies the possible drawbacks and benefits of the security of such a system. One of the chief benefits would be the centralised storage of informations which would forestall the loss of informations from the clients terminal devices. On the other manus, the major issues related to security include the long term viability and the segregation of informations. What is Cloud Computing? Cloud Computing Principle Specifying cloud computer science is about impossible. Their exists several definitions of cloud computer science. One of the universe greatest beginning of information, Wikipedia, defines cloud calculating as the followers ; Cloud computer science is Internet-based computer science, whereby shared resources, package and information are provided to computing machines and other devices on-demand, like electricity. Cloud computer science is a practical pool of resources which are distributed dynamically to 1000000s of users worldwide through package and managed by experts. This makes the cloud a really efficient system. This service is offered to users via an application plan and therefore the users need non to hold any proficient background. The whole system is unseeable to them. Apart from resources the cloud offers services to 1000000s of users at the same time. Software-as-a-Service ( SaaS ) is one of the most powerful service provided by the cloud. The user can compare similar p ackage from different companies and take to his liking. The cloud besides offers secure and reliable informations storage. It provides the user with infinite informations storage and calculating capacity to execute all sorts of applications. In the hereafter, we will merely necessitate a portable device which connects to the cyberspace and via web service we can execute any undertaking we require. Processing power, informations storage and expensive applications will be a job of the yesteryear. The user will do usage of the cloud merely like electricity or H2O, pay-per-use. Cloud computer science, in kernel, is to do usage of package and informations on the cyberspace. Besides, it is accessible from anyplace. To understand better the cloud, one must analyse it s features into some more item. Features Identify applicable sponsor/s here. If no patrons, cancel this text box. ( patrons ) A cloud computer science system Loose Matching In a cloud, the several parts of the cloud are independent of each other and barely affect each other. The different substructures are separated in logic. The cloud is designed as a client-server theoretical account, where clients connect slackly to waiters. The users have no informations and control dependences. In a cloud, the users are independent of each other and so are the suppliers which supply the clients with services. The twosome of client with a waiter is independent of other client-server twosomes and a mistake in one twosome does non normally affect other twosomes. This makes scalability of the cloud really easy. This is non so in HPC where information dependence is cardinal. This characteristic brings us to another of import feature which is the strong mistake tolerance of the cloud. Strong Fault Tolerance Mistake tolerance engineering is critical in systems where the interval between two or more mistakes is less than the executing clip. For scientific research, the executing clip for some applications can be yearss or hebdomads. Without such mistake tolerance techniques, such research would non be possible since due to the drawn-out procedure clip it is likely that mistakes occur and it is excessively clip devouring to re-start the procedure all over once more. Hence, such mistake tolerance makes it more likely to end such research successfully. A method used for mistake tolerance is to sporadically salvage the provinces of the cloud and when a mistake is detected, the system does non necessitate to re-start the procedure all over once more, but use the last good province of the plan and continue from at that place. Besides due to the loose coupling character of the cloud, merely a few provinces of the twosome ( user and supplier ) must be stored since other minutess in the cloud are independent. In a cloud, mistakes are normally divided into four countries: Provider-Inner This mistake occurs at the supplier and a redundancy system kicks in. Servicess are restarted and different twosomes are established to avoid mistake. Provider- Across This type of mistake occurs between coaction of two or more suppliers. The dealing will so be cancelled and an mistake message will be sent back to the supplier bespeaking coaction. Then the supplier will seek to link with another supplier. This coaction is normally done for burden reconciliation intents and it taken attention of by the background direction. Provider-User Mistakes between supplier and user are the chief type of mistakes in a cloud. There are several grounds which cause such jobs, which include but are non limited to: web, congestion, browser prostration, supplier busy, bespeak time-out and besides hacker onslaught. If the mistake does non affect cardinal elements, the dealing can be cancelled and the user can seek other clip. This normally solves the job. Algorithms such as the Byzantine mistake tolerant algorithm have been developed in order to get by with such mistakes which cause nodes to act inconsistently. Some minutess affecting money and personal informations are taken attention of by such algorithms, due to their sensitive nature. Besides, Torahs to cover such state of affairss are a must. User-Across Users, apart from linking to the supplier, may besides link to other users to portion critical resources. In this context, insecure accessing of critical resources can do a pandemonium in the cloud. Their exists several degrees to protect critical resources. The supplier will intercede the difference between users. As one can see, the current engineering that has evolved helps us cover with mistakes which are comparatively easy. This guarantees the strong mistake tolerance of cloud computer science. Ease of Use The easiness of usage of the system is one of the cardinal elements in cloud computer science. The human interaction with the system is what makes the system a success or non. In cloud calculating the user experience is much better than it s ascendants like grid calculating. The cloud services are laid out in a simple and elegant manner for the user by utilizing GUI. There are several grounds why cloud computer science should be easy to utilize. Most of the cloud suppliers provide Internet based interfaces. These interfaces are normally simpler than other APIs and besides conceal the concern processing buttocks. If the concern procedure alterations in any manner, the web based user-interface can remain the same. The development of web applications have a methodical attack including user demand analysis, functional design and plan execution. When utilizing a top-down method attack, the user experience is the fulcrum of the application. The web as we know it was ab initio designed to transport hypertext, but recent promotion have led us to Web 2.0 which offer a more package like environment to net applications. This makes the Internet a distant package interface. New engineerings such as AJAX makes this software-like web applications come to world. All these promotions in user interface engineering makes the experience of the user every bit best as possible, where the user does non necessitate to worry to command the system and at the push of a button he can execute undertakings impossible earlier. Apart from the mentioned proficient features, the Cloud Computing Model, is a really economical theoretical account. The users require a few hundred Euros to purchase the terminal device which connects them to the supplier where all the substructure is available to them. Besides, overall power ingestion is much less than the current criterion Internet system, where all processing is done locally. With loose yoke and the scalability of the system it is possible to function 1000000s of users with a fraction of the processing power used by current inefficient systems. This besides means that the electrical power is reduced to a great extent. Besides this system is a win-win system both for the user and the supplier since the user besides benefits from this system. The user does non necessitate to buy expensive package, new licences, expensive hardware or control viruses ; he merely needs to pay-per-use merely like other public-service corporations. Another feature of the system is the conveyance of informations on the dependable and standard TCP/IP connexion, which besides offers high security. The security in the Cloud is achieved through chiefly 3 ways: the loose yoke, the virtualization of the system and the coaction of Law with engineering. Servicess The chief services provided by cloud calculating are the undermentioned: Infrastructure-as-a-Service ( IaaS ) Infrastructure-as-a-Service, besides known as Hardware-as-a-Service, is the offering of a computing substructure as a service. Here immense computer science resources are offered which include treating power, storage and web. An application of this type of service is the hosting of a web site. In this instance, physical infinite is being used on the waiters of the hosting company. Through cyberspace, the files in that waiter can be modified as if the waiter was located on the webmaster s computing machine. All this without purchasing any discs or even cognizing the location of the informations dealt with. Platform-as-a-Service ( PaaS ) Platform-as-a-Service is the bringing of a calculating platform. The good known illustrations are Google App Engine and Microsoft Azure Services Platform. PaaS is what connects the hardware to the applications. Software-as-a-Service ( SaaS ) Software-as-a-Service purposes at replacing the applications running on a Personal computer. A typical state of affairs where this might be utile is the buying of package in a company. Alternatively of put ining package for each computing machine, utilizing SaaS, merely one application would hold to be loaded. That application would let workers to log into a Web-based service which hosts all the plans the user would necessitate to make their occupation. This type of service makes all the applications bing available to all users and paying merely for what they use, alternatively of purchasing expensive package. However this service is non so attractive to real-time applications such as gambling, due to the hold of the web. Deployment Models There are four chief cloud calculating deployment theoretical accounts which are: the private cloud, the public cloud, the community cloud and the intercrossed cloud. In a private cloud, the cloud substructure is owned or leased by a individual organisation and is operated entirely for that organisation. The populace or external cloud is the most common deployment method. In this instance, a 3rd party organisation offers its services to an terminal user via web applications. The community cloud is shared by several organisations who portion common demands and want to portion the benefits of cloud computer science. This theoretical account is much more expensive than a public cloud since the users are much more limited, but a higher degree of security is ensured. The last theoretical account, the intercrossed cloud, is a combination of two or more clouds. Cloud V Grid Computing Although Grid calculating and cloud computer science are related, they are non the same. The rule of Grid computer science is frequently considered as the foundation for Cloud calculating. Grid calculating is based on a grid of HPCs connected together, with the cardinal construct being public presentation. Grid computer science is chiefly used for scientific research centres or in academe. The grid is designed for best treating power and lowest latency. The interconnectednesss with different HPC centres within a grid are of high quality. Normally these webs use Infiniband as a physical bed protocol, alternatively of the more widely used and recognized Ethernet protocol. InfiniBandA is aA switched fabricA communications link which features high throughput, low latency andA quality of service. It is besides designed to be scalable. The grid, unlike the cloud, offers tight matching where each portion of the systems depends on another, therefore the fast interconnectedness to interchange informations. Besides, since the grid works in coaction with all the parts, a batch of synchronism is required, which over Ethernet would take hours to accomplish. In the cloud the resources and services are supplied on demand. The grid supplies a predefined sum of processing clip and memory, which in many instances causes a batch of waste due to the surplus of resource allotment. This makes the cloud more scalable since resources are supplied dynamically. Several writers commented on the differences between these two calculating constructions. In 2008 Harris said: While Grid Computing achieves high use through the allotment of multiple waiters onto a individual undertaking or occupation, the virtualization of waiters in Cloud Computing achieves high use by leting one waiter to calculate several undertakings at the same time ( Harris 2008 ) . Harmonizing to Merril Lynch what makes Cloud Computing different from Grid calculating is: Cloud computer science, unlike grid computer science, leverages virtualization to maximise calculating power. Virtualization, by dividing the logical from the physical, resolves some of the challenges faced by grid calculating ( Merrill Lynch 2008 ) . Furthermore, there are besides differences in the typical utilizing form of these systems. While Grid is normally used for occupation executings for a limited clip, Clouds are more used to back up long-running services. Cloud Computing V. Grid Calculating Grid Cloud Meanss of Use Allotment of multiple waiters onto a individual undertaking or occupation Virtualization of waiters ; one waiter to calculate several undertakings at the same time Typical Use Pattern Typically used for occupation executing, i.e. the executing of a plan for a limited clip More often used to back up long-running services Degree of Abstraction Expose high degree of item Supply higher-level abstractions The above mentioned comparings were all from the position of the supplier. The undermentioned comparings are from a user position: Pure focal point on X-as-a-Service ( XaaS ) by Clouds While in Grid Computing, public-service corporation computer science is merely one signifier, Cloud Computing focuses strictly on XaaS offered in a pay-per-use mode. Different relationships among resource suppliers While the Grid requires all the involved parties to perpetrate themselves to the resources needed before the operation starts, in Cloud Computing this pre-agreement is non needed and the resource allotment can turn when the demand additions. Focus on different types of applications: Grid Computing is chiefly used to work out computationally intensive jobs necessitating HPC. HPC applications normally consist of batch procedures which require high calculating power for one undertaking that is run one time in a clip. This implies that Grid Computing has the aim to delegate resources from different spheres to these HPC procedures. On the other manus, Cloud Computing is instead oriented towards applications that run for good and have changing demand for physical resources while running. Different range of offerings While Grid Computing provides IaaS, Cloud Computing offers an included support for IaaS, PaaS and SaaS. Extended range of interfaces to the user The Grid interfaces are based on protocols and APIs and so it is merely useable by proficient experts. On the other side, Cloud Computing is more user friendly since it provides interfaces for terminal users over Web browser or through APIs. Execution System Structure The construction of Cloud Computing is made up of the undermentioned constituents: Client The clients consist of the hardware and package utilized by the users to do usage of the services provided by cloud calculating. Examples include: computing machines, Mobiles and web browsers. Application This fundamentally defines SaaS, where package is offered as an on-line service. Platform The platform is the nexus between the package and the hardware. Infrastructure Infrastructure refers to the hardware supplied by the supplier such as informations storage. Waiter The waiters are needed to supply services to users. This includes multi-core processors and cloud-specific operating systems. Security Many believe that the major concern with respects to overcast calculating would be security. If security policies would be uneffective, major corporations would finally be discouraged to implement cloud solutions. Data Security must guarantee confidentiality, unity and handiness, which is a major issue for companies supplying cloud services. For information to stay confidential, the informations stored by a company must merely be decrypted by this company. This means that even the other company, which is hive awaying the information in its waiters, should non be able to decode the informations. With respects to unity, no common policies exist for approved informations exchanged. The industry has assorted protocols used to force different package images and occupations. An effectual manner to keep informations security from the client side would be to do usage of thin clients that have few resources and no informations so that watchwords can non be stolen. Last but non least, the informations must besides be available. The current Amazon cloud waiters have already experienced downtime. This job can be really detrimental to clients of a cloud system. Authentication of informations should besides be ensured with methods such as watchword plus finger print or any other combination of watchword and external hardware. Seven issues which must be tackled before companies can see utilizing the computing machine cloud theoretical account are the undermentioned: A Privileged User Access The information sent from the client over the Internet is ever at hazard due to issues of informations ownership. Companies should pass clip acquiring to knowA their suppliers and their ordinances every bit much as possible. Regulatory ComplianceA Clients are considered responsible for the security of their solution since the pick of a supplier which allows to be audited by 3rd party organisations that check degrees of securityA is theirs.A Data Location Depending on contracts, some clients might neer cognize what state or what jurisdiction their informations is located.A Data Segregation Encrypted information from multiple clients may be stored in the same location, so a method to divide informations should be considered by the provider.A Recovery Every supplier should hold a catastrophe recovery protocol to protect user informations Fact-finding SupportA It is needed if a client suspects defective activity from the supplier. Long-run Viability Refers to the ability to abjure a contract and all informations if the current supplier is bought out by another firmA There are several concerns sing the dependability of cloud calculating due to its security issues. However, cloud computer science has besides its benefits with respects to turn toing informations security. A construct such as centralised information is one of these benefits.A Centralized Data refers to the attack of hive awaying everything in one topographic point. It might be insecure since if the cloud goes down, so does the service, but so it is easier to supervise. Storing informations in the cloud eliminates several jobs related to losing storage media such as pendrives, which up boulder clay now is the most common manner of fring informations in big organisations. The laptop would merely hive away a little cache to interface with the thin client, but the hallmark is done through the web, in the cloud. In the instance when a laptop is stolen, the decision makers can halt its attempted entree based on its identifier or MAC reference. Furthermore, it is better and more efficient to hive away informations encrypted in the cloud instead than executing disk encoding on all of the hardware or backup storage. Decision and Future of Cloud Computing Cloud Computing is rather a complex proficient country in information engineering. It is still in its early phases with positive and negative comments have been pointed out on its possible execution on a big graduated table. The clear constructs defined in the paper aid but still do non work out the job of design, developing and following such a system. Several groups have been late formed which study this country, such as the Open Cloud Consortium and the Cloud Security Alliance, to set up a common construction among the different suppliers. This system is based on old research in High Performance Computing, virtualization and grid computer science. This paper discusses the features which distinguish Cloud Computing from the other related research countries particularly in contrast to Grid Computing. The loose yoke and strong mistake tolerant characteristics are considered as the chief proficient features which separates cloud calculating from the remainder. It is besides easy to utilize and is more user friendly than its similar systems which are chiefly designed for proficient people. This paper besides analyses the security lacks and benefits of cloud calculating which need to be weighed before execution. As for the hereafter of cloud computer science, people are being attracted by the subject and research is being done to minimise the system s drawbacks. HPC, which is the foundation of cloud computer science, has been around for more than 10 old ages. The increasing involvement in this country indicates that cloud computer science might be radical in the long-run hereafter.

Health disparities in Rural areas Research Paper

Health disparities in Rural areas - Research Paper Example Great health care disparities prevail in United States. Health status of the negatively privileged population is poor. Ethnic and racial minorities suffer great segregation problems in America. The African Americans, Native Americans, Hispanics, and Asian Americans struggle to meet the medical expenses. They are comparatively more vulnerable to chronic diseases than the whites. This ill-privileged group has high mortality rate and negative health outcomes. The heavy racial and ethnic disparities in United States reflect in health care sector also. For example, cancer rate is found to be very high among the African Americans (nearly 25% higher than the whites). Other blacks, especially Hispanics, are highly risky towards diabetes. The black minorities who live in unhealthy environment are also vulnerable to various other problems like AIDS and infant mortality. The healthcare policy of the United States is least favorable for this minority groups. The minority population residing in t he rural areas does not have a proper access to healthcare facilities. There is great disparity in the healthcare access of minorities and rest of the population. Minorities are deprived of efficient and good quality healthcare facilities. Rural residents of United States report poor health. They are more vulnerable to chronic conditions like diabetes. Heart disease is also not uncommon among them. Compared to their urban counterparts, minorities living in rural areas are more prone to diseases and are also deprived of good healthcare facilities. Negatively privileged minorities seldom receive the preventive services, and do not get access to good healthcare service providers. Even though they have more healthcare needs compared to others we find that they do not take proper treatment. The statistics of cancer screening and treatment of diabetes and heart diseases show that minorities are not always benefited of the treatment. Minorities residing in rural areas are disadvantaged bec ause of several reasons. Only nine percent of the doctors of the United States practice in the rural areas though rural areas have a heavy population who are in real need of healthcare facilities. Almost 20 percent of the nation’s population lives in rural areas. Rural residents choose not to avail medical facilities for they have to travel long distance to reach quality healthcare service providers. Certain improvements in healthcare for chronic conditions, availability of preventive services and access to quality healthcare have contributed to the reduction of disparity in healthcare field. These day minorities are fortunate to get better access to healthcare facilities. For example, access to pediatric vision care, timing of antibiotics, counseling for addictions, receipt of mammography and various other things have improved for negatively privileged people. However still there are disadvantaged populations who are not benefited out of these improvements. Asians, Indians, Alaska Natives, Hispanics, Latinos and few other populations still suffer from the lack of quality healthcare service. For example, when we look at the colon cancer screening statistics we can find this disparity. The disparity is increasing in spite of other attempts to give more privileges to the negatively privileged population. Disparities have also affected Hispanics and other people of color. Treatments for psychological disorders also give only a second privileged to blacks and other minorities. Health

The various ways in which the Hindus image God or the divine Essay

The various ways in which the Hindus image God or the divine - Essay Example The images are viewed as spiritual not material images that can assist the worshippers in reaching their God. Hindus describe the nature of God in various ways such as Acintya, Sanskrit, Shasta and murti. Acintya means the nature of God that is inconceivable beyond the thoughts and understanding of human beings. Sanskrit is a form of describing the nature of God .This means that when travelling from one place to another, this image can protect a worshipper throughout their destination. The Hindus also worship specific images that are known as arcya-vigraha.This means an image that can be worshipped .Another term that is used to describe the nature of God in Hindu religion is that of murti referring to a divine form of God (Clooney, 2005: 250). The scared images that are found in the Hindu temples and homes are installed according to specific rituals that are described in the scripture. For instance, devotees can go to the temple to take fruits and flowers and later on stand before the scared images in order to offer their hopes and prayers to them. In this case, the worshippers do not bow down to the stones or worship the statutes but they approach the images as a means of reaching God their maker (Clooney, 2005: 250).... The images of gods and goddesses are normally displayed in the stores, hospitals, altars and shrines of the Hindus homes. Hindus acknowledge the deities, but they consider only one to be supreme. They may also consider all gods and goddesses to be equal but they worship only one who is their favorite. They view all the divinities to be the manifestations of a single godhead (Clooney, 2005: 250). The Upanishads is a Hindu sacred text that refers to the Supreme Being known as the Brahman and is considered to be ineffable and it's beyond all human comprehension. Texts referred to as the purana claim that there is a divine entity that assumes a form and name that makes itself accessible to human kind. The Hindus speak of the Supreme Being as being the nirguna one. Are Buddhists being extreme or pessimistic when they assess that humans are rarely compassionate in a truly pure or selfless sense Buddhists are a family of beliefs and practices that are considered to be a religion that is based on the teachings that are attributed to Buddha. Buddha was also known as Siddhartha Gautama which means bound by a Nepal. This person lived and was taught in the Northern Eastern region of the Indian subcontinent where he died around 400 B.C.E in India. Buddha was believed to be a teacher who shared his insights in order to help the sentient beings so as to end their sufferings through understanding the nature of the phenomena; he escaped from the cycle of suffering and rebirth. Buddha passed a message of peace, hope, compassion, tolerance, understanding, wisdom, truth, respect and regard for life to persons that followed the Buddhism religion (Gyatso, 2001:51). The Buddhists that did

Affirmative Action Essay Example for Free

Affirmative Action Essay Affirmative action is policies to give special attention or compensatory treatment to members of previously disadvantages group. There is a lot of history and events behind this policy. First, in 1978 the Supreme Court addressed the issue for the first time with the case of Alan Bakke. He was a 31 year old who had been wait-listed for admission by the University of California at Davis. His scores and grades where higher than all the other African Americans so his rejection was declared illegal because they determined his admission by his race. Also, in 1979, the court ruled that a factory and a union could voluntarily adopt a quota system in selecting black workers over more senior white workers for a training program. As a result in 1980, Ronald Reagan, an ardent foe of for affirmative action was finally supported. Following this event, in 1989 the supreme court handed down five civil rights decisions limiting affirmative action programs and making it harder to prove employment discrimination. Lastly, in 1990 Congress passed legislation designed to overrule the Court’s rulings, but President George Bush vetoed it. Then in 1991 Congress made a weaker version of the Civil Rights Act the overruled the Supreme Court rulings which prohibited the use of quotas or affirmative action. The arguments for affirmative action is that there should be a certain number of a race admitted to a college or job. There should be quotas that have to be met with different minority groups. Only the â€Å"superior Caucasian race† should fill the schools or job positions. Everyone else is labeled â€Å"not good enough for the position. † The argument against affirmative action is that it is racist and violates all the civil rights laws we fought for. Everyone should have an equal opportunity to fill the position no matter his or her race, gender, ethnicity, etc. In my opinion, I don’t think affirmative action is needed today. I think it is 100% wrong and racist. Why should my race matter if I get the job or get accepted to a college? It shouldn’t matter, especially if I can work or study just as hard as a Caucasian student. We fought to hard for civil rights in order for this to be acceptable. Reverse discrimination is when a minority is the majority. This mainly happens with groups geared towards that minority. That minority would treat other with affirmative action just like they have probably been treated in the past. For example, college that is historically black will probably accept more African American students compared to any other race. Yes, I believe that reverse discrimination still occurs today. Those minority groups want majority groups to feel what they felt and experience affirmative action. With each candidate I considered his or her grade, scores, and extra curricular activities. I considered their GPA and activities over their SAT/ACT scores because I believe that not everyone is a good test taker. I believe that those tests shouldn’t determine whether you get accepted to a college or not. I don’t think that those scores can tell whether a student is going to succeed in college or not. I think that their GPA and high school grades should determine that. I also think that, that test shouldn’t determine anything because it isn’t fair; it is geared toward Caucasian students. I believe that race should not play any role in whether a student gets accepted, denied, or put on the waitlist. Just because I’m African American and the next student is Caucasian doesn’t mean we are different. At the end of the day both students are applying and attending college to get an education and fulfill their goals and ambitions. Admissions officers should consider how unique a student is and how much they genuinely appreciate education. All colleges should interview their possible applicants because anyone can write anything on a piece of paper. The process is probably really difficult because there are a lot of excellent applicants. Race should not be stated when selecting students for college. I believe that will eliminate affirmative action and other issues. For a college to â€Å"set aside† a certain place for minority groups or to give special treatment to certain groups could mean one of two things in my opinion. First it could mean that they are being racist and believe one group is superior over another. It could also mean that the college is trying to make that student comfortable by giving them people they can relate to. Most minority groups flock together anyway. I do believe that it is wrong for those groups to have special treatment over others because we are all equal. I don’t think colleges engage in this activity today, but they probably have in the past. This probably happened in the past when race played a big factor in everyone’s life. I believe that colleges should make each applicant anonymous when applying so that everyone has an equal and fair chance. Admissions officers should only know the students abilities and accomplishments which will admit them to the school or not. I think that it is very unfair how colleges resort to picking students to attend their schools. I wish this process could change for the better in the future. If a student worked hard in high school and has excellent criteria to attend the school, then why should they be denied over someone whose race is more unique? I believe that we are all equal and we should all get the same treatment no matter our race.

Toward a Dynamic Conception of ousia :: Aristotle Aristotelian Legacy

Toward a Dynamic Conception of ousia This paper is an initial attempt to develop a dynamic conception of being which is not anarchic. It does this by returning to Aristotle in order to begin the process of reinterpreting the meaning of ousia, the concept according to which western ontology has been determined. Such a reinterpretation opens up the possibility of understanding the dynamic nature of ontological identity and the principles according to which this identity is established. The development of the notions of energeia, dynamis and entelecheia in the middle books of Aristotle’s Metaphysics will be discussed in order to suggest that there is a dynamic ontological framework at work in Aristotle’s later writing. This framework lends insight into the dynamic structure of being itself, a structure which does justice as much to the concern for continuity through change as it does to the moment of difference. The name for this conception of identity which affirms both continuity and novelty is "legacy." Th is paper attempts to apprehend the meaning of being as legacy. There is perhaps no idea in the history of western ontology with a more powerful legacy than Aristotle’s conception of ousia. Traditionally construed, "ousia" stands for the primary, foundational principle of being. It can be said that ontology has historically been ousiology – the search for ultimate foundations. In this quest for ultimates, the ousia names the absolute arche, the foundational principle that reigns over and orders all being. The political tone of this formulation is intentional; it is designed to frame the ontological question concerning the meaning of ousia in ethico-political terms. The impetus behind this strategy is to suggest that western ontology has been largely determined by an authoritarian tendency that seeks to establish a single ultimate principle in order to secure a firm and certain foundation. On the one hand, this authoritarian tendency may be traced back to Aristotle, for ousia is precisely such a hegemonic principle; on the other hand , Aristotle also suggests another conception of ousia, one that can be drawn upon in the attempt to resist this authoritarian tendency. In what follows, I trace both the authoritarian and this resistant conception ousia in Aristotle. Aristotle’s Authoritarian Ontology To apply the political term "authoritarian" to an ontological account may at first seem to be a simple category mistake. However, this first impression fails to recognize that many of the terms that have come

Education and Economics Essay

I. Introduction: The conventional theory of human capital developed by Becker (1962) and Mincer (1974) views education and training as the major sources of human capital accumulation that, in turn, have direct and positive effect on individuals’ life time earnings. In the Mincerian earning function, the coefficient of school years indicates the returns to education, i. e. , how much addition in earnings takes place with an additional school year. There exists a wide range of literature that estimated the rates of returns to education for different countries [Pascharapoulos (1980; 1985; and 1994); Pascharapoulos and Chu Ng (1992)]1. In Pakistan, most of the nationally representative household surveys do not contain information on variables, such as, completed years of schooling, age starting school, literacy and numeracy skills, quality of schooling, and technical training. Due to the unavailability of completed school years, one can neither compute the potential experience nor observe the effect of an additional year of schooling on individual earnings. Therefore, the available literature in Pakistan is lacking in estimating the returns to education by using the Mincerian earning function2. In recent years, the government of Pakistan has started nation-wide survey, Pakistan Integrated Household Survey (PIHS), to address the imbalances in the social sector. This survey ? The authors are Senior Research Economist and Research Economist at the Pakistan Institute of Development Economics (PIDE) Islamabad. 1 Pascharapoulos (1994) provide a comprehensive update of the estimated rates of returns to education at a global scale. He observed high social and private profitability of primary education (18%and 9% respectively) in all regions of world. The private rate of returns at this level were found highest in Asia (39%) as compared to other regions. He also noted a considerable increase in total earnings by an additional year of education in all regions of world; 13% in Sub-Saharan Africa; 10% in Asia; 12% in Europe/Middle East/North Africa; and 12% in Latin America/Caribbean. 2 At national level, only two studies are available in Pakistan that used the Mincerian earning function approach to examine the returns to education [see Shabbir and Khan (1991) and Shabbir (1994)]. However, both these studies are based on twenty years old data set. 2 provides rich information on the above mentioned variables that were missing in the earlier household surveys. This study uses the data of PIHS to examine the returns to education by using Mincerian earning function and thus aims to fill the vacuum that, due to the lack of appropriate data, exists in the literature on returns to education in Pakistan. In this paper we will first estimate the earning function with continuous school years with the assumption of uniform rate of returns for all school years. It is argued that different school years impart different skills therefore we extend our analysis to examine the addition in earning associated with extra years of schooling at different levels of education, i. e. , how much increase in earnings takes place with an extra year of schooling at different levels, such as, primary, middle, matric, intermediate, bachelors and masters. By doing so we overcome the problem that exists in the available literature in Pakistan. To our knowledge no study has yet adopted this method to examine the returns to education in Pakistan3. The impact of technical training and school quality on the earnings of fixed salaried and wage earners will be examined in this study. Based on the available data in Pakistan, most of the studies, for example, Haque (1977), Hamdani (1977), Guisinger et al (1984), Khan and Irfan (1985), Ahmad, et al (1991); and Ashraf and Ashraf (1993a, 1993b, and 1996) estimated the earning functions by defining the dummy variables for different levels of education4. These studies observe low rates of returns at different levels of education as compared to other developing countries. However, a positive association between levels of education and earnings and an inverse relationship between the degree of income inequality and educational attainment has been noted. In order to examine the inter- 3 Most of the studies on returns to education in Pakistan used dummy variables for different levels of education where the rates of returns at different levels of education are computed by the estimated coefficients. 4 In Pakistan, the data on education in most of the nationally representative household surveys have been reported in discrete form that denotes the completion of different levels of education, such as, ‘primary but incomplete middle’, ‘middle and incomplete matric’, and so on. 3 provincial differentials in returns to education, Shabbir and Khan (1991) estimated the Mincerian earning function by using a nationally representative sample, drawn from the of Population, Labour Force and Migration Survey (1979) for the literate wage earners and salaried males. Later Shabbir (1994) estimated the earning function on the extended sample of the same data set. These studies found 7 to 8 percent increase in earnings with an additional year of schooling. Although the results are consistent with those of comparable LDCs but may not reflect the recent developments in Pakistan’s economy as these studies are based on the data set which are 20 years old now. Since 1979, the economy of Pakistan has passed through various changes, especially after the inception of the Structural Adjustment Programme in late 1980s. For example, the literacy rate has increased from 26 percent to 45 percent and enrolment at primary level has increased by 67 percent. Public and household expenditures on education have also increased [Economic Survey (1998-99)]. Moreover, due to the fiscal constraints, the employment opportunities in the public sector have started shrinking and the economy is moving towards more openness with stronger role of private sector in recent years. In this scenario, it becomes imperative to re-test the role of human capital as both private and public sectors are moving towards more efficiency and productivity. This study is important from three standpoints. First, in order to estimate the effect of education on earnings, the most recent and nationally representative household survey data is used which provides detailed information on the variables that were missing in previous surveys. Second, it uses the splines of education in the earning function to examine the additional earnings associated with extra school years at different levels. Third, this study investigates the role of some important factors such as, technical training, school quality, and literacy and numeracy skills on earnings for the first time. 4 The rest of the paper is organised as follows: section 2 presents an overview of the education sector. Section 3 outlines the model for empirical estimation and describes data. Section 4 reports the results. Conclusions and policy Implications are presented in the last Section. II. The Education Sector in Pakistan: An Overview: Education plays an important role in human capital formation. It raises the productivity and efficiency of individuals and thus produces skilled manpower that is capable of leading the economy towards the path of sustainable economic development. Like many other developing countries, the situation of the education sector in Pakistan is not very encouraging. The low enrolment rates at the primary level, wide disparities between regions and gender, lack of trained teachers, deficiency of proper teaching materials and poor physical infrastructure of schools indicate the poor performance of this sector. The overall literacy rate for 1997-98 was estimated at 40 percent; 51 percent for males and 28 percent for females; 60 percent in urban areas and 30 percent in rural areas. These rates are still among the lowest in the world. Due to various measures in recent years, the enrolment rates have increased considerably. However, the high drop-out rate could not be controlled at primary level. Moreover, under-utilisation of the existing educational infrastructure can be seen through low student-institution ratio, (almost 18 students per class per institution) low teacher-institution ratio (2 teachers per institution) and high studentteacher ratio (46 students per teacher). The extremely low levels of public investment are the major cause of the poor performance of Pakistan’s education sector. Public expenditure on education remained less than 2 percent of GNP before 1984-85. In recent years it has increased to 2. 2 percent. In addition, the allocation of government funds is skewed towards higher education so that the benefits of public subsidy on education are largely reaped by the upper income class. Many of the highly educated 5 go abroad either for higher education or in search of better job opportunities. Most of them do not return and cause a large public loss. After mid-1980s, each government announced special programs for the improvement of the education sector. However, due to the political instability, none of these programs could achieve their targets. The Social Action Program was launched in early 1990s to address the imbalances in the social sector. This program aims to enhance education; to improve school environment by providing trained teachers, teaching aids and quality text books; and to reduce gender and regional disparities. The Phase-I of SAP (1993-96) has been completed and Phase-II is in progress. The gains from the Phase-I are still debatable because the rise in enrolment ratio has not been confirmed by the independent sources. Irrespective of this outcome, government has started work on Phase-II of SAP. In this Phase, government is paying special attention to promote technical and vocational education, expanding higher education in public as well as in the private sector, enhancing computer literacy, promoting scientific education, and improving curriculum for schools and teachers training institutions in addition to promoting primary and secondary education. Due to low levels of educational attainment and lack of technical and vocational education, Pakistan’s labour market is dominated by less educated and unskilled manpower. A considerable rise in the number of educational institutions and enrolment after 1980s is not yet reflected in Pakistan’s labour market. This might be due to the fact that most of the bachelor’s and master’s degree programmes emphasise only on academic education without developing specific skills. The sluggish demand for the graduates of these programs in the job markets leads to unemployment among the educated and the job market remains dominated by the less educated. In this scenario, it becomes important to explore the role of education for the economic benefit of individuals. 6 III. Theoretical Model and Estimation Methodology: We start with the human capital model developed by Becker (1964) and Mincer (1974) where natural logarithm of monthly earnings are the linear function of completed school years, experience and its square. In mathematical form the equation can be written as: ln Wi = ? 0 + ? 1 EDU i + ? 2 EXPi + ? 3 ( EXPi ) 2 + Ui (1) where ln Wi stands for natural logarithm of monthly earnings, EDUi represents completed years of schooling, and EXPi is the labor market experience of ith individual. ?1 implies the marginal rate of return to schooling. A positive value of ? 2 and negative value of ? 3 reflects the concavity of the earning function with respect to experience. Ui is the error term, assumed to be normally and identically distributed. It has been argued in the literature that different school years impart different skills and hence affect earnings differently. Therefore, it is misleading to assume a uniform rate of return for all educational levels. Most of the previous studies used dummy variables to capture the effect of different levels of education. In order to examine the effect of school years at different levels of education, van der Gaag and Vijverberg (1989) divided the years of schooling according to the school systems of Cote d’ Ivore. Similarly Khandker (1990) also used years of primary, secondary and post-secondary schooling in wage function for Peru. Both studies found significant differences in returns to education at different levels of education. Following van der Gaag and Vijverberg (1989), we divide the school years into seven categories according to the education system of Pakistan. In Pakistan, the primary education consists of 5 years of schooling; middle requires 3 more years; and by completing 2 more years of schooling after middle, an individual obtains a secondary school certificate i. e. , Matric. After matric , i. e. , 10 years of schooling, students have a choice between technical and formal education. Technical education 7 can be obtained from technical institutions which award diploma after 3 years of education while the certificate of intermediate can be obtained after two years of formal education. After the completion of intermediate certificate, students can enter either in the professional colleges for four years or in non-professional bachelors degree program for two years in a college. Those who choose non-professional degree can pursue their studies in a university for masters for two more years. At this stage the graduates of professional and non-professional colleges complete 16 years of education. They can now proceed to the M. Phil. or Ph. D. degrees. In order to examine the returns to education at different splines of education, we estimate the following extended earning function. ln Wi = ? 0 + ? 1Yrs Pr imi + ? 2 YrsMid i + ? 3YrsMati + ? 4 YrsInteri + ? 5 YrsBAi + (2) ? 6 Yrs Pr of i + ? 7 EXPi + ? 8 ( EXPi ) 2 + Ui where YrsPrim, YrsMid, YrsMat YrsInter YrsBA YrsProf are defined as: YrsPrim = D5EDUi YrsMid = D8EDUi YrsMat = D10EDUi YrsInter = D12EDUi YrsBA = D14EDUi YrsProf = D16EDUi where D5 = 1 if where D8 = 1 if where D10 = 1 if where D12 = 1 if where D14 = 1 if where D16 = 1 if 0< EDU ? 5 5< EDU ? 8 8< EDU ? 10 10< EDU ? 12 12< EDU ? 14 EDU > 14 The coefficients associated with YrsPrim, YrsMid, YrsMat YrsInter YrsBA YrsProf in equation 2 imply an increase in income with one year increase in education at respective levels. For example, the returns to five completed years of education at primary level will be 5*? 1. Similarly, the returns to for six, seven and eight of education will be 5*? 1+? 2, 5*? 1+2? 2, and 5*? 1+3? 2 respectively. On the same lines we can compute the returns to education at each level as: 8 Returns to Primary =5*? 1 Returns to Middle =5*? 1+3*? 2 Returns to Matric= 5*? 1+3*? 2+2*? 3 Returns to Intermediate=5*? 1+3*? 2+2*? 3 +2*? 4 Returns to Bachelor’s =5*? 1+3*? 2+2*? 3 +2*? 4 +2*? 5 Returns to MA/Prof=5*? 1+3*? 2+2*? 3 +2*? 4 +2*? 5 +2*? 6 The data are drawn from the nationally representative Pakistan Integrated Household Survey 1995-96. In order to assess the performance of the Social Action Programme (SAP), the government of Pakistan has launched the series of Pakistan Integrated Household Surveys (PIHS), a collaborative nation wide data collection effort undertaken by the Federal Bureau of Statistics (FBS). So far two rounds have been completed. The first round of the PIHS is different from other round on two counts. Firstly, the information on employment and wages is available only in this round. Secondly, only 33 percent of the sample used in the first round is being repeated in the subsequent rounds. This implies that all of these rounds are independent cross-section data sets and can not be properly linked with each other to be used as panel data. Therefore, the appropriate sample can only be drawn from the first round of PIHS. This round was conducted in 1995-96, which covers 12,622 households and more than 84,000 individuals. The 1995-96 PIHS provides a detailed information on completed school years5. In addition, this survey contains information on age started school. This information is particularly important for our study to calculate the potential experience of a worker. The indicator for experience used by Mincer (1974) is a good proxy for U. S. workers as they start school at the uniform age of six years6. However, this assumption does not hold in Pakistan, as in this country there is no uniform age to start school. In urban areas, children as young as three years start going to school whereas in rural 5 This is the only nation-wide data set that provides this particular information. Similarly no other survey contains information on public and private school attendence and year starting school. 6 Mincer defined experience as (Age-education-6). 9 areas the school starting age is higher. 7 This information enables us to construct potential experience as (age-schools years-age starting school). Although experience is still a proxy for actual experience but it is relatively better measure than age and the Mincer type potential experience. In addition to education and experience, various other factors, such as quality of schooling, technical training and quality of schooling have significant impact on earning8. It has been argued that because of the market-oriented approach adopted by the private schools, the graduates of these schools earn more as compared to the graduates of public schools9. According to Sabot (1992), Behrman, Ross, Sabot and Tropp (1994), Alderman, Behrman, Ross and Sabot (1996a), Alderman, Behrman, Ross and Sabot (1996b), and Behrman, Khan, Ross and Sabot (1997), the quality of education has positive, significant and substantial impact on cognitive achievements and hence on post school productivity, measured by earnings. These studies observed higher earnings of the graduates of high quality school than those who attended a low quality school. A recent study by Nasir (1999) found considerably higher earnings for the private school graduates. These schools, however, charge higher fees. â€Å"Estimates of average annual expenditure per pupil in both government and private schools indicates that the total cost of primary level in rural areas is Rs. 437 (Rs 355 for government schools and Rs. 1252 for private schools), compared with Rs. 2038 in urban areas (Rs. 1315 for government and Rs. 3478 for private schools). This means that the cost of primary schooling is almost three times that of public schools in urban 7 The issue of age starting school has been highlighted by Ashraf and Ashraf (1993) and because of the nonavailability of this information, they used age as proxy for experience. 8 See Summers and Wolf (1977); Rizzuto and Wachtel (1980); Behrman and Birdsall (1983); Booissiere, Knight and Sabot (1985); Knight and Sabot (1990);Behrman, Ross, Sabot, and Tropp (1994); Behrman, Khan, Ross and Sabot (1997). 9 Various studies found the effectiveness of private schools to acquire cognitive skills [Colemen, Hoffer and Kilgore (1982); and Jimenez, Lockheed, Luna and Paqueo (1989)]. For Pakistan, Sabot (1992), Behrman, Ross, Sabot and Tropp (1994), Alderman, Behrman, Ross and Sabot (1996a), Alderman, Behrman, Ross and Sabot (1996b), and Behrman, Khan, Ross and Sabot (1997) found a significant variation in the cognitive skills among children with same number of school years. These studies conclude that some of the differences are due to the family characteristics while some are due to the quality of schooling. 10. areas and nearly four times in rural areas. The differences in cost of schooling also reflect the degree of quality differentials in public and private schools, and between urban and rural schools. A relatively better provision of school facilities and quality of education in private schools is causing a continuous rise in school enrolment in urban areas† [Mehmood (1999) page 20]. The PIHS provides information on the type of school attended10. On the basis of this information we can identify workers according to the school they attended and therefore examine the effect of type of school on individual earnings. In order to capture the quality of education an individual received, a dummy variable is included in the model that takes the value ‘1’ if individual is a graduate of private schools and ‘0’ otherwise. The effect of post-school training on earning has been found positive and substantial in many developing countries [see Jimenez and Kugler (1987); van der Gaag and Vijverberg (1989); Khandker (1990); and Nasir (1999)]. The PIHS contains information on years of technical training. This information helps us to examine the effect of technical training received on individual earnings. We use completed years of technical training as independent variable in the earning function. The existence of vast gender gap in human capital accumulation is evidenced by various studies in Pakistan11. The PIHS reports vast gender disparities in literacy and enrolment rates. The literacy rate among females is half than that of males’ literacy rate for whole Pakistan. This difference has increased to three-folds for rural areas. The gender difference is however smaller for the gross enrolment rate at primary level. For the higher levels of education, this difference 10. The coefficient of private school may also capture the effect of socio-economic background of workers. The data, however, does not contain such information, therefore we are unable to separate the effect of parental characteristics from the effect of private schools in worker’s earnings. 11 Sabot (1992); and Alderman, Behrman, Ross and Sabot (1996b); Sawada (1997); Shabbir (1993); and Ashraf and Ashraf (1993a, 1993b, and 1996) 11 shows an increasing trend. Similarly vast gender gap has been observed in returns to education where males earn more than the female workers [Ashraf and Ashraf (1993a, 1993b and 1996) and Nasir (1999)]. In order to capture the effect of gender, a dummy variable is introduced in the model that takes the value ‘1’ for males and ‘0’ otherwise. The regional imbalances in the provision of limited available social services are more pronounced in Pakistan. Rural areas are not only underdeveloped in terms of physical infrastructure but also neglected in gaining basic amenities. Haq (1997) calculated the disaggregated human development index for Pakistan and its provinces. He noted that nearly 56 percent of population is deprived of basic amenities of life in Pakistan; 58 percent in rural areas and 48 percent in urban areas. According to the 1995-96 PIHS, the literacy rate in urban areas is 57 percent and in rural areas it is 31 percent. The gross enrolment rate was noted 92 percent in urban areas and 68 percent in rural areas. Because of these differences low returns to education are observed in rural areas [Shabbir (1993 and 1994) and Nasir (1999)]. To capture the effect of regional differences, a dummy variable is used that takes the value ‘1’ if individual lives in urban areas and zero otherwise. The four provinces of Pakistan exhibit different characteristics in terms of economic as well as social and cultural values. Significant provincial differentials in rates of returns to education have been noted that reflect not only the differences in market opportunities but also indicate uneven expansion of social services across provinces [Khan and Irfan (1985); Shabbir and Khan (1991); Shabbir (1993); Shabbir (1994); and Haq (1997)]. The effects of these differences are captured through the use of dummy variables for each province in the earning function, Sindh being the excluded category. 12 For the purpose of analysis we restrict our sample to wage earners and salaried persons. Our sample contains 4828 individuals. Among them, 4375 are males and 453 are females. Table 1 presents the descriptive statistics of some of the salient features of the important variables. According to the statistics in table 1, average age of the individuals included in the sample is 34 years with 18 years of experience. A typical worker in the sample has completed approximately 10 years of education. A majority is graduated from public schools. Most of the workers live in urban areas. On average an individual earns Rs. 3163 per month. In our sample, there are only 22 percent individuals who received technical training. The average years spent for training are less than one year. A majority of wage earners belong to Punjab, followed by Sindh and Balochistan. Table1 Mean, Standard Deviation and Brief Definitions of Important Variables Variables W Age EDU EXP RWA MALE Urban Private Training Punjab Sindh NWFP Balochistan Mean SD Variables Definitions 3163. 34 3397. 39 Individual’s monthly earnings in rupees consist of wages and salaries. 34. 07 12. 36 Age of an individual in years. 9. 53 4. 36 Completed years of schooling. 18. 14 11. 80 Total Years of labour market experience calculated as (age-school years-age starting school). 2. 37 1. 07 Categorical variables, contains 4 categories of literacy and numeracy. 0. 91 0. 29 Dichotomous variable equal to 1 if individual is male. 0. 60 0. 49 Dichotomous variable equal to 1 if individual belongs to urban area 0. 04 0. 19 Dichotomous variable equal to 1 if individual is a graduate of private school 0. 35 0. 87 Completed years of technical training 0. 38 0. 49 Dichotomous variable equal to 1 if individual belongs to Punjab 0. 31 0. 46 Dichotomous variable equal to 1 if individual belongs to Sindh 0. 15 0. 36 Dichotomous variable equal to 1 if individual belongs to NWFP 0. 16 0. 36 Dichotomous variable equal to 1 if individual belongs to Balochistan 13 IV. Empirical Results The estimated results of equation 1 and equation 2 are reported in table 2. The highly significant coefficients of school years and experience indicate the applicability of human capital model for Pakistan. An additional year of schooling raises individual’s monthly income by 7. 3 percent, which is very close to the prior studies. 12 13 The coefficient of experience shows substantial increase in wages with each additional year. The concavity of age-earnings profile is evident from the negative and significant coefficient of experience squared. The results reveal that an individual with five years of experience earns 31 percent higher wages as compared to non-experience worker. The highest level of earnings is achieved with approximately 30 years of experience. These estimates are relatively low compared to prior studies14. The positive and significant coefficients of gender (0. 401) and regional dummies (0. 178) strengthens the a priori expectation that males earn more than females and earnings are higher in urban areas as compared to rural areas. These estimates are consistent with earlier studies [see Arshaf and Ashraf (1993), Khan and Irfan (1985)]. Furthermore, significant inter-provincial differences in individual’s earnings can be observed in the estimated model. Many studies indicate substantial differences in earnings across school levels. For example, van der Gaag and Vijverberg (1989) noted that an increase of one year in elementary, high and university education causes an increase of 12 percent, 20 percent and 22 percent respectively in 12 The estimated coefficients of school years by Shabbir and Khan (1991), Shabbir (1991), Shabbir (1993) and Shabbir (1994) are found to be in the range of 6 percent to 9. 7 percent. 13 The returns to education are calculated by taking the anti-log of 0. 092 (estimated coefficient of completed school years) and subtracting from 1. To convert into percentage, multiply the value by 100. For details, please see Gujrati (1988) page 149. 14 The difference in the returns to experience could be due to the approach adopted by these studies. Most of the studies used age as a proxy for experience [see for example Khan and Irfan (1985); Ashraf and Ashraf (1993); and Nasir (1999)]. Shabbir (1991) used the Mincerian approach to calculate experience. The present study uses actual age of starting school and actual years of education. These information enable us to calculate total years of labor market experience. This approach is also not the perfect alternative for actual experience, as we do not have information about the starting time of the first job. But when compared with other approaches, it is more precise in measuring experience. 14 earnings. In order to examine the returns to education across different school years, we include the information on schooling according to the education system of Pakistan (equation 2). The results reported in column 3 of table 2 show a positive and significant impact of school years at each educational level on earnings. For example, an increase of one year in education at primary level increases the earnings by 3 percent. Similarly, at middle level, one year of schooling brings about an increase of 4 percent in earnings and the total returns to schooling at middle level are 27 percent. Table 2 Earning Function with and without Levels of Education Variables Coefficient s 6. 122 0. 072* 0. 058* -0. 001* 0. 178* 0. 401* 0. 127* -0. 113* -0. 203* 0. 412 t-ratios Coefficient s 6. 380 0. 058* -0. 001* 0. 150* 0. 264* 0. 098* -0. 112* -0. 166* 0. 027** 0. 040* 0. 050* 0. 057* 0. 071* 0. 082* 0. 429 t-ratios Coefficient s 6. 342 0. 058* -0. 001* 0. 152* 0. 262* 0. 096* -0. 108* -0. 164* 0. 052* 0. 007 0. 025* 0. 038* 0. 047* 0. 063* 0. 075* 0. 429 t-ratios Constant EDU EXP EXP2 Urban Male Balochistan NWFP Punjab RWA Yrs-Prim Yrs-Mid Yrs-Mat Yrs-Inter Yrs-BA Yrs-Prof Adj R2 148. 91 46. 71 26. 49 -19. 20 10. 31 13. 98 4. 94 -4. 34 -10. 21 – 92. 03 23. 85 -16. 84 7. 87 8. 15 3. 40 -4. 06 -7. 75 2. 03 5. 07 8. 69 11. 41 16. 85 21. 98 – 89. 25 23. 84 -16. 88 7. 98 8. 09 3. 32 -3. 91 -7. 63 2. 41 0. 45 2. 45 5. 02 7. 28 11. 47 15. 57 – * significant at 99 percent level. ** significant at 95 percent level. One can note higher returns of additional year of schooling for higher educational levels from this table. For example, the returns to masters and professional education (Yrs-Prof) are more than five- 15 times higher than that of primary school years (Yrs-Prim). The results exhibit a difference of 15 percent between primary graduates and illiterates, the excluded category. This category includes illiterates as well as all those who have not obtained any formal schooling but have literacy and numeracy skills15. To further explore the earning differential between primary school graduates and those who never attended school but have literacy and numeracy skills, we have constructed an index RWA that separates illiterates from those who have literacy and numeracy skills. This index takes the value ‘zero’ if individual does not have any skill; ‘1’ if individual has only one skill; ‘2’ if individual has two skills; and ‘3’ if individual has all three skills. We re-estimated equation 2 with this new variable and the results are reported in column 5 of table 2. According to our expectations, the coefficient of RWA is found not only large (0. 05) in magnitude but also statistically significant at 99 percent level. This indicates that the individuals with all three skills earn 15 percent more than those who have no skill. On the other hand, the coefficient of Yrs-Prim dropped to 0. 007 and became insignificant16. The differential in the earnings of illiterates and those having five years of primary education was 15 percent (0. 03*5=0. 15). This differential however, reduced to approximately 9 percent (0. 007*5+0. 053=8. 8) when we include those who have no formal education but have literacy and numeracy skills. These high returns to cognitive skills indicates the willingness of employer to pay higher wages to the able workers as compared to those who have five or less years of schooling but do not have these skills. Now we examine the effect of technical training and quality of schooling on earnings, first in separate equations and then in a single equation. The impact of technical training on earnings is examined by including years of apprenticeship as continuous variable in our model. The results are reported in column 1 of table 3. The results show a positive and significant impact of technical 15 There are 48 wage earners in our sample who have education less than primary but do not have any of these skill. Whereas we found 76 wage earners who do not have any formal education but have at least one of these skills. 16 This result is consistent with van der Gaag and Vijierberg (1989). 16 Table 3 Earning Functions : Impact of Technical Training and School Quality (Separate Functions) Variables Constant EDU EXP EXP2 Urban Male Balochistan NWFP Punjab Train.

Biography of James A. Garfield, 20th U.S. President

James A. Garfield ( November 19, 1831—September 19, 1881) was an educator, lawyer, and a major general in the Union Army during the Civil War. He was elected to the Ohio State Senate and to the U.S. Congress before becoming the 20th American president on March 4, 1881. He served only until Sept. 19, 1881, when he died from complications caused by an assassins bullet 11 weeks before. Fast Facts: James A. Garfield Known For: 20th president of the United StatesBorn: Nov. 19, 1831 in Cuyahoga County, OhioParents: Abram Garfield, Eliza Ballou GarfieldDied: Sept. 19, 1881 in Elberon,  New JerseyEducation: Williams CollegeSpouse: Lucretia RudolphChildren: Seven; two died in infancy Early Life Garfield was born in Cuyahoga County, Ohio, to Abram Garfield, a farmer, and  Eliza Ballou Garfield. His father died when Garfield was just 18 months old. His mother tried to make ends meet with the farm, but he and his three siblings, two sisters and a brother, grew up in relative poverty. He attended a local school before moving on to Geauga Academy in Geauga  County, Ohio in 1849. He then went to the Western Reserve  Eclectic  Institute (later called Hiram College) in Hiram, Ohio, teaching to help pay his way. In 1854, he attended Williams College in Massachusetts, graduating with honors two years later. On Nov. 11, 1858, Garfield married  Lucretia Rudolph, who had been a student of his at the Eclectic Institute. She was working as a teacher when Garfield wrote to her and they began courting. She contracted malaria while serving as first lady but lived a long life after Garfields death, dying on March 14, 1918. They had two daughters and five sons, two of whom died when they were infants. Career Before the Presidency Garfield began his career as an instructor in classical languages at the Eclectic Institute and was its president from 1857 to 1861. He studied law and was admitted to the bar in 1860, and he was ordained a minister in the  Disciples of Christ  church, but he soon turned to politics. He served as an Ohio state senator from 1859 to 1861. Garfield joined the Union army in 1861, taking part in the Civil War battles of Shiloh and Chickamauga and reaching the rank of major general. He was elected to Congress while still in the military, resigning to take his seat as a U.S. representative and serving from 1863 to 1880. During this time he had an extramarital affair with a woman in  New York City. He later admitted the indiscretion and was forgiven by his wife. Becoming President In 1880, the Republicans nominated Garfield to run for president as a compromise candidate between conservatives and moderates. Conservative candidate Chester A. Arthur was nominated as vice president. Garfield was opposed by Democrat Winfield Hancock. Acting upon the advice of President Rutherford B. Hayes, Garfield shied away from actively campaigning, speaking to reporters and voters from his home in  Mentor, Ohio, in what was referred to as the first â€Å"front porch† campaign. He won 214 out of 369 electoral votes. Events and Accomplishments Garfield was in office for only six and a half months. He spent much of that time dealing with patronage issues. The one major issue that he faced was an investigation of whether mail route contracts were being awarded fraudulently, with tax money going to those involved. The investigation implicated members of his Republican Party, but Garfield didnt flinch from continuing. In the end, revelations from the incident, called the Star Route Scandal, resulted in important civil service reforms. Assassination On  July 2, 1881, Charles J. Guiteau, a mentally disturbed office seeker, shot  Garfield  in the back in the Washington, D.C., railroad station while he was on his way to a family vacation in  New England. The president lived until Sept. 19 of that year. Guiteau apparently was driven by politics, saying to police after he surrendered, Arthur is now president of the United States. He was convicted of murder and hanged on June 30, 1882. The cause of death was massive hemorrhaging and slow  blood poisoning, which was later described as being related more to the unsanitary way physicians treated the president than to the wounds themselves. Doctors of the time were unschooled in the role of hygiene in preventing infection. The standard procedure was to devote most of the treatment effort to removing the bullet, and a number of doctors repeatedly poked his wound in an unsuccessful search. Legacy Garfield served the second shortest presidential term in American history, topped only by the 31-day term of William Henry Harrison, the ninth president, who caught a cold that turned into fatal pneumonia. Garfield was buried in Lake View Cemetery in  Cleveland. Upon his death, Vice President Arthur became president. Because of Garfields brief time in office, he couldnt achieve much as president. But by allowing the investigation into the mail scandal to continue despite its effect on members of his own party, Garfield paved the way for civil service reform. He also was an early champion of the rights of African-Americans, believing that education was the best hope for improving their lives. In his inaugural address, he said: â€Å"The elevation of the Negro race from slavery to the full rights of citizenship is the most important political change we have known since the adoption of the Constitution of 1787. No thoughtful man can fail to appreciate its beneficent effect upon our institutions and people.†¦It has liberated the master as well as the slave from a relation which wronged and enfeebled both.† Garfields prolonged death is credited with helping to establish the American president as a celebrity. The public and the media of the day were described as being obsessed with  his lengthy passing, more so even than they had been with the assassination of President Abraham Lincoln 16 years before. Sources James Garfield. WhiteHouse.gov.James A. Garfield: President of the United States. Encyclopedia Brittanica.